# **By Dianna Gielstra** # **Welcome to the Cryosphere!** This field trip explores examples of the cryosphere in the regions surrounding the North and South Poles. The Greenland fjord illustrates an experience of a tundra environment influenced by glaciers. The Paulet, Antarctica, experience showcases examples of icebergs, ice shelves, pack ice, and permafrost. Explore these glacial environments to discover the unique processes and features that make each area special. ### ### **Land Acknowledgment** Before embarking on the field trip, it is essential to recognize the valuable cultural heritage of the High Arctic region, which is shaped by the Native communities that still reside there. We acknowledge that the land on which our data were collected in Greenland and Nunavut, the High Arctic, is home to the Indigenous Peoples of Greenland, Kalaallit Nunaat, and the Inuit people. We take this opportunity to thank the original caretakers of this land. ### ### **The Cryosphere: What It Is and Why It Matters** The **cryosphere** encompasses all frozen components of the Earth system (glaciers, ice sheets, permafrost, sea ice, and snow). These frozen areas and components play an important part in regulating the global climate, while also sustaining ecosystems and human communities. Today, the cryosphere is undergoing unprecedented change due to sustained global temperature increases, with 2024 recorded as the warmest year on record (+1.55 °C) (WMO, 2025). Due to recent reports highlighting alarming trends, glaciers are losing 600 gigatons of water in 2023. As a result, one-third of United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization's (UNESCO) culturally significant glaciers may vanish by 2050. Furthermore, both the icesheets in Greenland and Antarctic continue to shed mass, accelerating sea-level rise (WMO, 2024). These changes threaten freshwater availability, agriculture, hydropower, and global climate stability. To address this crisis, international initiatives have emerged: [UNESCO and World Meteorological Organization (WMO) declared 2025 the International Year of Glacier’s Preservation](https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/unesco-and-wmo-launch-international-year-of-glaciers-preservation-2025), and the [United Nations endorsed 2025–2034 as the Decade of Action for the Cryospheric Sciences](https://www.un-cryosphere.org/en). These efforts aim is to raise awareness, promote research, and emphasize the irreplaceable role of glaciers and frozen ground in the global water cycle. This virtual field trip encourages students to become acquainted with the cryosphere to understand its significance and the far-reaching implications of its transformation. ### ### **Climographs-A Tool to Understand the Biomes** A **climograph** is a type of climate diagram that shows a location’s average monthly temperature and precipitation. The information on the average monthly temperature is displayed as a line, and precipitation is represented by bars on the graph. Combined, these two variables provide a clear visual representation of seasonal climate patterns throughout the year. Climographs are tools used by scientists to understand and compare biomes, as climate strongly influences the characteristics of each biome. The patterns shown in the visual aid help identify climate types, reveal seasonal variations, and highlight differences between regions. The visualization helps scientists infer ecological features (dominant vegetation, soil conditions, biodiversity, and the ecological adaptations of plants and animals) at a location. Additionally, these visuals can be compared from different time periods to help researchers track long-term changes in temperature and precipitation, and are used to understand and monitor climate change and its effects on biomes. We will use climographs to the High Arctic and the Antarctic to illustrate the difference between the two areas. ### ### **The High Arctic and Antarctica** The environments in the High Arctic and Antarctica are rugged with unpredictable climate conditions. The storms can be punishing, the winds fierce, and the potential for blizzards can push living things to their limits of tolerance. The Köppen Climate Classification is a system developed by Wladimir Köppen in 1900 to categorize the world's vegetation types and structures based on climate zones (ESRI, n.d.). Tundra is classified as E (Polar) and T (Tundra), while Antarctica is E (Polar) and F (frost or ice cap) (Table below). Table . Köppen Climate Classification and microclimate code information (M365 Copilot, 2025; Means, n.d.) | **Class** | **Name** | **Location and Latitude Range** | **Temperature** | **Precipitation** | **Microclimate Codes** | **Designation Explained** | |-----------|-------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | A | Tropical | Near the equator (approximately 0-15 degrees North and South) | ≥18 °C year-round | \>1500 mm/year | Af, Am, Aw | “f” = wet all year, “m” = monsoonal, “w” = winter dry | | B | Dry | Approximately 15-30 degrees North and South, some extension to 50 degrees North and South in some areas) | Hot deserts: \>30 °C summer; Cold deserts: \<0 °C winter | BW: \<250 mm/year; BS: 250–500 mm/year | BWh, BWk, BSh, BSk | “h” = hot, “k” = cold; “W” = desert, “S” = steppe | | C | Temperate | Mid-latitudes and near the coasts. Approximately 25-55 degrees North and South) | Summer: 10–22 °C; Winter: -3 to 18 °C | 600–2000 mm/year | Cwa, Cwb, Cwc, Csa, Csb, Cfa, Cfb, Cfc | “w” = winter dry, “s” = summer dry, “f” = without dry season; “a, b, c” = summer warmth levels ](https://www.thoughtco.com/the-worlds-koppen-climates-4109230) | | D | Continental | Inland with further distance from the oceans, Approximately 25-70 degrees North and South) | Summer: \>10 °C; Winter: \< -3 °C | 500–1500 mm/year | Dsa, Dsb, Dsc, Dsd, Dwa, Dwb, Dwc, Dwd, Dfa, Dfb, Dfc, Dfd | “s/w/f” = seasonal precipitation; “a, b, c, d” = summer/winter temperature severity | | E | Polar | Near the North Pole and the South Pole, Approximately 65-90 degrees North and South) | Tundra: 0–10 °C summer; Ice cap: \<0 °C year-round | \<250 mm/year | ET, EF | “T” = tundra (warmest month between 0–10 °C); “F” = frost/ice cap (no month above 0 °C) | | H | Highland | | | | No subcategories, varies by region | Represents alpine conditions, montane environments | ### **Tundra** The **tundra** is a biome located above the tree line in terms of either altitude or latitude, where temperatures are too low to support tree growth (Figure. Map of tundra locations) (Salisbury & Ross, 1992). The biome is characterized by an extremely cold climate, showing extreme seasonality. The temperature range for the tundra biome is between -40°C (-40 °F) and 18°C (64°F) (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, n.d.) (Figure. Climograph of the High Arctic). For higher latitudes, the seasonality involves 24 hours of daylight in summer, followed by months of darkness in winter, resulting in a short growing season for plants. Soil development is limited (Pielou, 1991). Combined, the cold climate and the short growing season constrain plant growth and productivity, and low temperatures restrict nutrient cycling and reduce soil microbial activity, resulting in thin, poorly developed soils with minimal organic horizons (Pielou, 1991; Salisbury & Ross, 1992). ### **[Click Here to Enter VR of a Greenland tundra scene](https://geoepic.app/scenes/greenland-fjord)** A map of the world AI-generated content may be incorrect.

Figure: Map of tundra locations based on the Köppen-Geiger Classification: Tundra climate (ET) A graph with a red line AI-generated content may be incorrect.

Figure. Climograph of the Tundra Environment on Ellesmere Island (Mapresso, n.d). Table: Data for the tundra climate taken from (Mapresso, n.d.) A screenshot of a calendar AI-generated content may be incorrect.

**Arctic Plant Communities** These environmental conditions favor plant communities composed of slow-growing species that can withstand frost, desiccation, and wind exposure. In the High Arctic, vegetation cover tends to be sparse to moderately continuous, but plant stature remains low, forming carpets, cushions, or mats that are low to the ground. The plant groups include cold-tolerant mosses, lichens, small graminoids (such as grasses, sedges, and rushes), cushion plants, and dwarf shrubs adapted to shallow, nutrient-poor substrates (Figures a. -d.). Often, plant species rely on clonal growth, long-lived tissues, and physiological mechanisms such as antifreeze compounds or evergreen leaves to persist in environments where annual growth is minimal, particularly in low-temperature conditions. Collectively, these adaptations shape a vegetation community that, while low in biomass, is highly specialized and resilient within the constraints of High Arctic tundra ecosystems.

A pile of rocks and grass AI-generated content may be incorrect.

A close-up of a rocky area AI-generated content may be incorrect.

A stream of water with grass and bushes AI-generated content may be incorrect.

A rocky landscape with a body of water AI-generated content may be incorrect.

A close-up of a field of flowers AI-generated content may be incorrect.

Figures show arctic circumpolar species distribution: a. Dryas integrifolia and rock covered with orange crustose lichen, b.mat and cushion plants growing in the crevices of rock broken up by freeze-thaw cycles. Dryas sp. is evident, as are low sedges, c. Salix sp. in a thawed bog with associated sedges, mat, and cushion plants, d. mat and cushion plants inhabiting the lower depressions of patterned ground, e. Saxifraga sp. and Pedicularis sp. growing together in low mats on the tundra. (Photographs taken by Dianna Gielstra)

[Video by the Canadian Museum of Nature of lichens of the Canadian High Arctic](https://nature.ca/en/lichens-of-the-canadian-high-arctic/) **Permafrost** **Permafrost **is permanently frozen ground with temperatures at or below freezing (0 degrees C, 32 degrees F) for at least two consecutive years (Martini et al. 2001). In many Arctic and Antarctic regions it has persisted for thousands of years. Frozen ground occurs in areas with extremely cold climates where low temperatures freeze soil, rock, ice, and organic material into a solid, stable layer. Situated above this frozen ground lies what is known as the **active layer,** which is a thin surface layer exposed to solar radiation that absorbs heat and thaws each summer, but then refreezes in winter. This process is known as **freeze-thaw **action. The thin active layer allows for limited plant growth. In the photo below the think active layer is visible on an **esker**, a long, narrow ridge between 2 and 50 m in height, is composed of sand and gravel that accumulated in glacier meltwater stream channels flowing under the glacier during the last Ice Age (Martini et al., 2002). With glacier retreat, the sediment remained in place, which creates a raised, winding ridge delineating the path of the former stream, providing evidence of past glacial activity (Photograph by Dianna Gielstra). In cold regions where permafrost or seasonally frozen ground exists, the active layer becomes warm during summer months with solar radiation striking darker surfaces and heating them, known as the albedo effect. As the upper layer of soil thaws, it becomes saturated with water that cannot drain below the subsurface as the underlying layer remains frozen. The saturated upper layer moves gradually downhill under the influence of gravity, and forms **solifluction lobes** on slopes. Solifluction lobes are common in tundra environments and indicate slow, continuous soil movement in response to freeze-thaw cycles.

Figure. An esker found in Ovayok Territorial Park, Cambridge Bay, in the Kitikmeot Region, Nunavut, Canada. Solifluction lobes are evident on the esker ridge sides. Permafrost is important in the Arctic landscapes because it influences soil stability, drainage, and the formation of features such as patterned ground, ice wedges, and thermokarst. Permafrost is also a carbon sink and stores vast amounts of carbon locked in frozen organic matter. One concern scientists have noted is that as global temperatures rise, permafrost thaw is accelerating. This acceleration results in ground instability, changes in ecosystems, and the release of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane) back into the atmosphere contributing to global warming trends through the greenhouse effect, a natural process in which trapped gases store heat in the atmosphere. This process makes permafrost an essential component of climate research and Arctic environmental science. Comparing the High Arctic with the Antarctic permafrost reveals differences shaped by the region's unique geography and isolation, which in turn have distinct climatic and geological influences. Unlike the continuous expanses of the Arctic, Antarctic permafrost occurs primarily in ice-free coastal zones and mountainous areas. In Antarctica, glacier ice is concentrated in two massive ice sheets, the East Antarctic and West Antarctic, which are both characterized by polar conditions and a base of frigid ice (Photo taken by Dianna Gielstra) (Martini et al., 2002). A snowy mountain with a hill in the background AI-generated content may be incorrect.

Figure. East Antarctic ice sheet with mountainous area (Photo taken by Dianna Gielstra) As shown in the climograph below, the average annual monthly temperature in Antarctica remains below zero, resulting in minimal thawing and maintaining the stability of the permafrost (Mapresso, n.d.). Strong **katabatic winds** that form over the ice sheets create even colder, drier environmental conditions. As katabatic winds move downwards with gravity to the coastal areas, they reinforce cold climate conditions (low temperatures, heat transfer reduction) (Mapresso, n.d.) A graph with a red line AI-generated content may be incorrect.

Figure. Climograph of the Permafrost, Ice Cap Environment on Antarctica (Mapresso, n.d). Table: Data for the permafrost, ice cap climate taken in Antarctica (Mapresso, n.d.) A screenshot of a calendar AI-generated content may be incorrect.

### [**Click to Enter VR of Paulet Island, Antarctica**](https://geoepic.app/scenes/paulet-island-antarctica) ### **References:** Beck, H.E., McVicar, T.R., Vergopolan, N., Alexis, B., Lutsko, N.J., Dufour, A., Zeng, Z., Jian, X., van Dijk, A.I.J.M., Miralles, D.G. - "High-resolution (1 km) Köppen-Geiger maps for 1901–2099 based on constrained CMIP6 projections". Scientific Data. DOI:10.1038/s41597-023-02549-6., CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=146711372 The diagrams use the free global dataset [CHELSA](https://chelsa-climate.org/) (Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface areas). These high-resolution data cover the period 1981-2010, and pixel size is less than one square kilometer. Canadian Museum of Nature. (n.d.). *Lichens of the Canadian High Arctic*. Nature. Retrieved November 17, 2025, from [https://nature.ca/en/lichens-of-the-canadian-high-arctic/](https://nature.ca/en/lichens-of-the-canadian-high-arctic/?utm_source=chatgpt.com) Esri. (n.d.). Köppen-Geiger climate classification system (time series). ArcGIS Online. Retrieved November 14, 2025, from https://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=5b273ae8d749455c92075826afb1a6f4 Karger, D.N., Conrad, O., Böhner, J., Kawohl, T., Kreft, H., Soria-Auza, R.W., Zimmermann, N.E., Linder, P., Kessler, M. (2017). Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth land surface areas. ***Scientific Data***. 4 170122. Martini, P.I., Brookfield, M.E., & Sadura, S. (2001). Principles of Glacial Geomorphology and Geology. Prentice Hall. Means, T. (2025, May 7). Köppen climate classification system. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/the-worlds-koppen-climates-4109230 National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (n.d.). *Tundra* (Mission: Biomes). NASA Earth Observatory. Retrieved November 17, 2025, from [https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/biome/biotundra.php](https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/biome/biotundra.php?utm_source=chatgpt.com) Pielou, E. C. (1991). *After the ice age: The return of life to glaciated North America*. University of Chicago Press. Salisbury, F. B., & Ross, C. W. (1992). *Plant physiology* (4th ed.). Wadsworth Publishing. United Nations. (n.d.). Cryosphere. Retrieved November 14, 2025, from https://www.un-cryosphere.org/en World Meteorological Organization. (2025, March 21). UNESCO and WMO launch International Year of Glacier’s Preservation 2025. Retrieved November 14, 2025, from World Meteorological Organization. (2024, December 18). *New reports sound alarm on the cryosphere*. Retrieved November 14, 2025, from ## ## **Glossary:** Active layer – The upper layer of soil in permafrost regions that thaws during the summer and refreezes in the winter. It sits above permanently frozen ground. Climograph – A graph that shows the average monthly temperature and precipitation for a specific location. Cryosphere – All frozen components of the Earth system. Esker – A long, meandering ridge made of gravel and sand deposited by meltwater streams that once flowed beneath glaciers. Freeze-Thaw – A process where water freezes and expands in cracks, then thaws, causing rock to break apart over repeated cycles. Glacier – A large, persistent body of dense ice that moves under its own weight, formed from accumulated snow over time. Ice Sheets – Vast, continental-scale masses of glacial ice covering land, such as those in Greenland and Antarctica. Ice Shelves – Thick, continuous floating platforms of ice that form where glaciers or ice sheets flow into the ocean. Katabatic Winds – Very cold, heavy winds that flow downhill from high places like mountains, glaciers, or ice sheets. The air cools, becomes dense, and rushes downward, sometimes becoming extremely strong Permafrost- Ground/soils that remain frozen for at least two consecutive years, typically found in polar and high-altitude regions. Sea Ice – Frozen ocean water that forms and floats on the surface of polar seas, influencing climate and ecosystems. Solifluction Lobes – Tongue-shaped soil and debris formations created by the slow downslope movement of water-saturated soil over frozen ground. Tundra – A biome above treeline in cold climates with permafrost beneath the surface, supporting mosses, lichens, and other low-growing hardy plants.